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Fever is an elevated body temperature. Temperature is considered elevated when it is higher than 100.4° F (38°
C) as measured by an oral thermometer or higher than 100.8° F (38.2° C)
as measured by a rectal thermometer. Many people use the term “fever”
loosely, often meaning that they feel too warm, too cold, or sweaty, but
they have not actually measured their temperature.
Although 98.6° F (37° C) is considered normal temperature, body temperature varies throughout the day. It is lowest in the early morning and highest in the late afternoon—sometimes reaching 99.9° F (37.7° C). Similarly, a fever does not stay at a constant temperature. Sometimes temperature peaks every day and then returns to normal. This process is called intermittent fever. Alternatively, temperature varies but does not return to normal. This process is called remittent fever. Doctors no longer think that the pattern of the rise and fall of fever is very important in the diagnosis of certain disorders.
Consequences of fever
The symptoms people have are due mainly to the condition causing the fever rather than the fever itself.
Although many people worry that fever can cause harm, the typical temporary elevations in body temperature to 100.4° to 104° F (38° to 40° C) caused by most short-lived (acute) illnesses are well-tolerated by healthy adults. However, a moderate fever may be slightly dangerous for adults with a heart or lung disorder because fever causes the heart rate and breathing rate to increase. Fever can also worsen mental status in people with dementia.
Extreme temperature elevation (typically more than 105.8° F, or 41° C) may be damaging. A body temperature this high can cause malfunction and ultimately failure of most organs. Such extreme elevation sometimes results from very severe infection (such as sepsis, malaria, or meningitis) but is more typically caused by heatstroke or use of certain drugs.
Causes
Substances that cause fever are called pyrogens. Pyrogens can
come from inside or outside the body. Microorganisms and the substances
they produce (such as toxins) are examples of pyrogens formed outside
the body. Pyrogens formed inside the body are usually produced by
monocytes and macrophages (two types of white blood cells). Pyrogens
from outside the body can cause fever by stimulating the body to release
its own pyrogens or by directly affecting the area of the brain that controls temperature.
Infection is not the only cause of fever. Fever may also result from inflammation, a reaction to a drug, an allergic reaction, autoimmune disorders (when the body produces abnormal antibodies that attack its own tissues), and undetected cancer (especially leukemia, lymphoma, or kidney cancer).
Many disorders can cause fever. They are broadly categorized as
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Infectious (most common)
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Neoplastic (cancer)
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Inflammatory
An infectious cause is highly likely in adults with a fever that
lasts 4 days or less. A noninfectious cause is more likely to cause
fever that lasts a long time or returns.
Many cancers cause fever.
Inflammatory disorders that cause fever include joint, connective tissue, and blood vessel disorders such as rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus (lupus), and giant cell arteritis.
Also, an isolated, short-lived (acute) fever in people with
cancer or a known inflammatory disorder is most likely to have an
infectious cause. In healthy people, an acute fever is unlikely to be
the first sign of a chronic illness.
Drugs sometimes cause fever. For example, beta-lactam antibiotics (such as penicillin)
and sulfa drugs can trigger a fever. Drugs that can cause an extremely
high temperature include certain illicit drugs (such as cocaine, amphetamines, or phencyclidine), anesthetics, and antipsychotic drugs.
Most common causes
Virtually all infectious disorders can cause fever. But overall, the most likely causes are
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Upper and lower respiratory tract infections
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Gastrointestinal infections
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Urinary tract infections (UTIs)
Most acute respiratory tract and gastrointestinal infections are viral.
Risk factors
Certain conditions (risk factors) make people more likely to have a fever. These factors include the following:
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The person's health status
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The person's age
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Certain occupations
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Use of certain medical procedures and drugs
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Exposure to infections (for example, through travel or contact with infected people or insects)
Evaluation
Usually, a doctor can determine that an infection is present
based on a brief history, a physical examination, and occasionally a few
simple tests, such as a chest x-ray and urine tests. However, sometimes
the cause of fever is not readily identified.
When doctors initially evaluate people with an acute fever, they focus on two general issues:
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Identifying other symptoms such as headache or cough: These symptoms help narrow the range of possible causes.
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Determining whether the person is seriously or chronically ill: Many of the possible acute viral infections are difficult for doctors to diagnose specifically (that is, to determine exactly which virus is causing the infection). Limiting testing to people who are seriously or chronically ill can help avoid many expensive, unnecessary, and often fruitless searches.
Warning signs
In people with an acute fever, certain signs and characteristics are cause for concern. They include
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A change in mental function, such as confusion
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A headache, stiff neck, or both
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Flat, small, purplish red spots on the skin (petechiae), which indicate bleeding under the skin
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Low blood pressure
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Rapid heart rate or rapid breathing
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Shortness of breath (dyspnea)
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A temperature that is higher than 104° F (40° C) or lower than 95° F (35° C)
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Recent travel to an area where a serious infectious disease such as malaria is common (endemic)
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Recent use of drugs that suppress the immune system (immunosuppressants)
When to see a doctor
People who have any warning signs should see a doctor right away.
Such people typically need immediate testing and often admission to a
hospital.
People without warning signs should call the doctor if the fever
lasts more than 24 to 48 hours.
Depending on the person's age, other symptoms, and known medical conditions, the doctor may ask the person to come for evaluation or recommend treatment at home. Typically, people should see a doctor if a fever lasts more than 3 or 4 days regardless of other symptoms.
Depending on the person's age, other symptoms, and known medical conditions, the doctor may ask the person to come for evaluation or recommend treatment at home. Typically, people should see a doctor if a fever lasts more than 3 or 4 days regardless of other symptoms.
What the doctor does
Doctors first ask questions about the person's symptoms and
medical history. Doctors then do a physical examination. What they find
during the history and physical examination often suggests a cause of
the fever and the tests that may need to be done.
A doctor begins by asking a person about present and previous
symptoms and disorders, drugs currently being taken, any blood
transfusions, exposure to infections, recent travel, and recent
hospitalizations, surgeries, or other medical procedures. The pattern of
the fever rarely helps the doctor make a diagnosis. However, a fever
that returns every other day or every third day is typical of malaria.
Doctors consider malaria as a possible cause only if people have
traveled to an area where malaria is common.
Recent travel may give the doctor clues to the cause of a fever
because some infections occur only in certain areas. For example,
coccidioidomycosis (a fungal infection) occurs almost exclusively in the
southwestern United States.
Recent exposure to certain materials or animals is also
important. For example, people who work in a meatpacking plant are more
likely to develop brucellosis (a bacterial infection spread through
contact with domestic animals).
Pain is an important clue to the possible source of fever, so the
doctor asks about any pain in the ears, head, neck, teeth, throat,
chest, abdomen, flank, rectum, muscles, and joints.
Other symptoms that help determine the cause of the fever include
nasal congestion and/or discharge, cough, diarrhea, and urinary
symptoms (frequency, urgency, and pain while urinating). Knowing whether
the person has enlarged lymph nodes or a rash (including what it looks
like, where it is, and when it appeared in relation to other symptoms)
may help the doctor pinpoint a cause. People with recurring fevers,
night sweats, and weight loss may have a chronic infection such as
tuberculosis or endocarditis (infection of the heart's lining and
usually the heart valves).
The doctor may also ask about the following:
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Contact with anyone who has an infection
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Any known conditions that predispose to infection, such as HIV infection, diabetes, cancer, organ transplantation, sickle cell disease, or heart valve disorders, particularly if an artificial valve is present
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Any known disorders that predispose to fever without infection, such as lupus, gout, sarcoidosis, an overactive thyroid gland (hyperthyroidism), or cancer
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Use of any drugs that predispose to infection, such as cancer chemotherapy drugs, corticosteroids, or other drugs that suppress the immune system
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Use of illicit drugs that are injected
The physical examination begins with confirmation of fever. Fever is most accurately determined by measuring rectal temperature. Then the doctor does a thorough examination from head to toe to check for a source of infection or evidence of disease.
Testing
The need for testing depends on what the doctor finds during the medical history and physical examination.
Otherwise healthy people who have an acute fever and only vague,
general symptoms (for example, they feel generally ill or achy) probably
have a viral illness that will go away without treatment. Therefore,
they do not require testing. Exceptions are people who have been exposed
to an animal or insect that carries and transmits a specific disease
(called a vector), such as people with a tick bite, and people who have
recently been in an area where a particular disorder (such as malaria)
is common.
If otherwise healthy people have findings that suggest a
particular disorder, testing may be needed. Doctors select tests based
on those findings. For example, if people have a headache and stiff
neck, a spinal tap (lumbar puncture) is done to look for meningitis. If
people have a cough and lung congestion, a chest x-ray is done to look
for pneumonia.
People who are at increased risk of infection, people who appear
seriously ill, and older people often need testing even when findings do
not suggest a particular disorder. For such people, doctors often do
the following:
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A complete blood count (including the number and proportion of different types of white blood cells)
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A chest x-ray
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Urinalysis
An increase in the white blood cell count usually indicates
infection. The proportion of different types of white blood cells
(differential count) gives further clues. For example, an increase in
neutrophils suggests a relatively new bacterial infection. An increase
in eosinophils suggests the presence of parasites, such as tapeworms or
roundworms. Also, blood and other body fluids may be sent to the
laboratory to try to grow the microorganism in a culture. Other blood
tests can be used to detect antibodies against specific microorganisms.
Fever of unknown origin (FUO)
A fever of unknown origin may be diagnosed when
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People have a fever of at least 101° F (38.3° C) for several weeks
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Extensive investigation does not detect a cause
In such cases, the cause may be an unusual chronic infection (such as tuberculosis, bacterial infection of the heart, HIV infection, cytomegalovirus, or Epstein-Barr virus) or something other than an infection, such as a connective tissue disorder (such as lupus or rheumatoid arthritis) or cancer (such as lymphoma or leukemia). Other causes include drug reactions, blood clots (deep vein thrombosis), inflammation of organ tissues (sarcoidosis), and inflammatory bowel disease. In older people, the most common causes of FUO are giant cell arteritis, lymphomas, abscesses, and tuberculosis.
Doctors usually do blood tests, including a complete blood cell count, blood cultures, tests to evaluate how well the liver is functioning (liver function tests), and tests to check for connective tissue disorders. Other tests, such as chest x-ray, urinalysis, and urine culture, may be done.
Ultrasonography, computed tomography (CT), or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), particularly of areas that are causing discomfort, may help a doctor diagnose the cause. Radionuclide scanning,
done after white blood cells labeled with a radioactive marker are
injected into a vein, may be used to identify areas of infection or
inflammation.
If these test results are negative, doctors may need to take a
sample of tissue from the liver, bone marrow, or another site of
suspected infection for biopsy. The sample is then examined under a
microscope, cultured, and analyzed.
The treatment of FUO is focused on treating the disorder causing
the fever if it is known. Doctors may give drugs to lower the body
temperature (see treatment of fever).
Treatment
Because fever helps the body defend against infection and because
fever itself is not dangerous (unless it is higher than about 106° F
[41.1° C]), there is some debate as to whether fever should be routinely
treated. However, people with a high fever generally feel much better
when the fever is treated. Plus, people with a heart or lung disorder
and those with dementia are considered to be at particular risk of
dangerous complications, so when they have a fever, it should be
treated.
Drugs used to lower body temperature are called antipyretics.
The most effective and widely used antipyretics are acetaminophen and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), such as aspirin, ibuprofen, and naproxen.
Typically, people may take one of the following:
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650 milligrams of acetaminophen every 6 hours (not to exceed 4,000 milligrams in 1 day)
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200 to 400 milligrams of ibuprofen every 6 hours
Because many over-the-counter cold or flu preparations contain acetaminophen, people must be careful not to take acetaminophen and one or more of these preparations at the same time.
Other cooling measures (such as cooling with a tepid water mist
and using cooling blankets) are needed only if the temperature is about
106° F (41.1° C) or higher. Sponging with alcohol is avoided because
alcohol can be absorbed through the skin and may have harmful effects.
People who have a blood infection or who have abnormal vital
signs (such as low blood pressure and a rapid pulse and breathing rate)
are admitted to the hospital.
Essentials for Older People: Fever
Fever can be tricky in older people because the body may not
respond the way it would in younger people. For example, in frail older
people, infection is less likely to cause fever. Even when elevated by
infection, the temperature may be lower than the standard definition of
fever, and the degree of fever may not correspond to the severity of the
illness. Similarly, other symptoms, such as pain, may be less
noticeable. Frequently, a change in mental function or a decline in
daily functioning is the only other initial sign of pneumonia or a urinary tract infection.
However, older people with a fever are more likely to have a
serious bacterial infection than are younger adults with a fever. As in
younger adults, the cause is commonly a respiratory or urinary tract
infection. Skin and soft-tissue infections are also common causes in
older people.
Diagnosis of fever in older people is similar to that for younger
adults, except that for older people, doctors usually recommend urine
tests (including culture) and a chest x-ray. Samples of blood are
cultured to rule out a blood infection (bacteremia).
Key Points
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Most fevers in healthy people are caused by a respiratory or gastrointestinal infection due to a virus.
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If people with a fever have any warning signs, they should see a doctor right away.
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Doctors can usually identify an infection based on a brief medical history, a physical examination, and occasionally a few simple tests, and then doctors use these results, particularly symptoms, to determine which other tests are needed.
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Doctors consider underlying chronic disorders, particularly those that impair the immune system, as a possible cause of fever that lasts a long time.
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Taking acetaminophen or an NSAID usually lowers fever and usually makes people feel better, although for most people, treatment is not crucial.
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In older people, infections are less likely to cause fever, and other symptoms may be less noticeable.
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